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本 科 毕 业 论 文

汉英跨文化交际中含蓄与直率语用逻辑

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对比分析

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姓名：何杨明

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学号：2007011155

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指导教师姓名：       李迎冬      

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职        称：      副教授     

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单        位：     外国语学院   

专 业 名 称 ：     英 语 教 育  

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申请学位级别：     学      士  

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论文提交日期：     2011年4月  

学位授予单位：    某某师范学院  

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二○一一年四月

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AContrastive Analysis of Logical Thinking Differences between Chinese andEnglish in Cross-culture communication:

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To Be Straightforward orTo Be Veiled

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 He Yangming

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Supervisor

Pro, Li Yingdong

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A Thesis Submitted as a

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Partial Fulfillment forthe Degree of

B.A. in English

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SCHOOL OF FOREIGEN LANGUAGES

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YUXI NORMAL UNIVERSITY

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April, 2011

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Statement of Authorship

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Except where reference is madein the text of the thesis, this thesis contains no material published elsewhereor extracted in whole or part from a thesis presented by me for another degreeor diploma.

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No other person’s work has beenused without due acknowledgement in the main text of the thesis.

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This thesis has not beensubmitted for the award of any other degree or diploma in any tertiary institution.

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Signed:

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Date:

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Acknowledgments

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Upon the completion of this thesis, I have to express mysincere thanks to all the respectable teachers and friends who have offered agreat help during the writing of this thesis.

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Firstly, I shall thank Professor Li Yingdong, who has givenme the most important guidance in setting up the essay’s structure, spent alarge amount of time in reading and correcting this paper, and spared notrouble in modifying and re-arranging my disordered materials. It is with thehard work of Professor Li that my ideas about the logical thinking differencesbetween Chinese and English grow into an orderly thesis.

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Secondly, my sincere thanks also go to my friends kindly sharing their experiences and ideas with me in thisthesis.

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Lastly, I would like to give my sincere thanks tomy roommates who offered their computers for me for searching information andtyping this paper, too.

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Abstract

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After Reforming and becoming one member of WTO, Chinahas been developing rapidly in the past 30 years. And with the growing of China,she is playing a more and more significant role throughout the world so thatChinese people are encountering more and more cross-culture communication. However,will culture difference lead to some disparities in cross-culture communication?Based on previous studies of other scholars, this paper focuses on the logical characteristicsand differences between Chinese and English for the sake of providing moreresource for English learners and those who are studying cross-culturecommunication.

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 Firstly, this essay introduces the basicelements of cross-culture communication and the definition of logic. Secondly,it analyzes the characteristics of two culture group’s logical thinkingaccording to the review of their history. At last, it goes on studying severalexamples and then come to a conclusion to the disparities between Chinese andEnglish logical thinking.

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Key words: cross-culturecommunication; culture difference; logical thinking; logical differences

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摘要

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随着改革开放及加入世界贸易组织，中国社会在过去的三十年间得到迅猛发展，综合国力大幅度提高,并逐渐成为世界上一个举足轻重的角色。中国与西方各国的联系更加密切,跨文化交际活动日益频繁。然而,不同的文化背景是否会导致言语交际在逻辑上有所差异呢？

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本文在借鉴前人研究成果的基础上,着重对汉、英两种民族言语表达的逻辑特征进行对比分析，以期能帮助英语语言学习者及有跨文化交际需要的人们了解英语语用逻辑，掌握跨文化交际技能,避免用语失当,成功地与外国人交往。

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这篇论文介绍了跨文化交际的基本元素、逻辑的定义，而后通过分析了汉、英两个民族的历史得出两种民族语言的基本逻辑特征及两种文化之间的语用逻辑差异。

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关键词：跨文化交际；文化差异；逻辑思维；逻辑差异

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Contents

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Statement ofAuthorship………………………………………………………………………i

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Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………………ii

Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………iii

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摘要 ………………………………………………………………………………………… iv

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1. Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………… 1

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1.1 Preliminaries…………………………………………………………………………1

1.2 Purpose and Significance of the Study………………………………………………2

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2. Literature Review………………………………………………………………………… 3

2.1 Definitions of Logic, Logical Thinking, and Cross-cultureCommunication……… 3

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2.2 The Relationship Between Logical Thinking and Cross-culture Communication…………………………………………………………………… 3

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3. Chinese and EnglishLogical Thinking ………………………………………………… 4

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3.1  TheOriginal Causes of Logical Thinking Differences Between Chinese and English………………………………………………………………………………4

3.2  Characteristicsof Chinese Logical Thinking ……………………………………… 7

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3.3  Characteristicsof English Logical Thinking ………………………………………11

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4. Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………………… 14

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References

1. Introduction

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1.1  Preliminaries

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Logic, “the way of reasoning or view ofsomething” (Oxford Dictionary, 1997:1029), governs people’s communication allthe time. Once Liang Yiru, Hu Xiaohui, and Gong Chengbo (cited from Susan Lange)show that “symbols, which imply people’s emotion, could be classified into twoforms: logical (language) and illogical (art). The former (language), fromconcepts to judgments, and then from judgments to deductive reasoning,construct a logic system which consist of grammar, syntax, etc” (Gong Chengbo, 2002:344,translated from Chinese). That is, language is a logical system. However, Liang Yiru,Hu Xiaohui, and Gong Chengbo also noted that: “Chinese language and letters, especiallyChinese language, are not same as western words which would combine twophonemes or more into a compound syllable, have no logical form. Chinese, onthe way they think, show less preference on logic and reasoning” (2002:344-345,translated from Chinese). As Sha Lianxiang(1989:227) holds the idea that “Chineseletters, Chinese language, and the way Chinese people think show that Chinesepeople think it is not necessary to pay much attention to the accuracy logicalsystem”(Translated from Chinese). Since Chinese and English have disparities interms of logical thinking, there must be many problems for either side tocommunicate with the other in cross-culture communication. Are there logicaldifferences between them? If there are logical differences, what are they?

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On thematter of cross-culture communication, great efforts had been paid by manyresearchers and a wealth of fruitful results was found. However, in terms oflogical thinking differences, few resources are available for consulting.

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1.2  Purpose and Significance of the Study

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Fore many years, English has been one of the requiredcurriculums in all middle schools and high schools, and in most primary schoolsof urban areas in China.And in resent years, many Chinese rural primary schools, and even kindergartensin urban areas start to have English curriculums. In addition, more and moreadults are joining the group of learning English. However, even those who havelearned English for at least six years have problems in communicating withnative English speakers. For example, the students, including English majors inYuxi Normal University.The author has been studying in Yuxi Normal Universityfor more than three years and has been a regular visitor of the English corner.According to the author’s experience, many students there not only fail torecognize there are logical differences between Chinese and English but alsofail to meet the basic needs of accuracy and fluency. The author caught sightsof many funny and awkward circumstances which result from lack of knowledge onculture differences. It seems that English learners pay little attention tological differences, or even don't realize that Chinese and English have suchculture disparities at all. Ever since the Reforming in 1978, and becoming amember of WTO, as a developing country, China is playing a key role in theworld; and Chinese people have more chances to communicate with English spokenforeigners, which require them to have language and culture knowledge onEnglish countries. Only knowing the others logical form can we communicate withthem without hitch. It is beyond doubt that it's high time for Chinese peopleto pay attention to the logical differences between Chinese and English. Thus,firstly this paper is going to analyze the original causes of logical thinkingdifferences between Chinese and English; secondly it goes on analyzing thelogic characteristics of Chinese and English and trying to find out the logicaldifferences between them. The author does hope that this paper may be of greathelp to both culture groups.

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2. Literature Review

2.1 Definitions of Logic, Logical Thinking, and Cross-culture Communication

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Logic is a “particular method orsystem of reasoning” (Oxford Dictionary, 1997:873). “Way of thinking that use concepts,judgments, and deductive reasoning to analyze reality during the process ofacquiring knowledge, logical thinking is abstract and excludes specific imagesand discloses the intrinsic nature of things” (Modern Chinese Dictionary:Digital dictionary). “On the one hand, cross-culture communication meanscommunicators are from different language groups; on the other hand, it meanscommunications in which communicators have language and culturedifferences”(Net1). Usually, people in cross-culture are from differentcountries.

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2.2  The Relationship Between Logical Thinking and Cross-culture Communication

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    Language, a system withlogic, enables communicators with different culture background to communicatewith each other. Yet Sapir (1929:214), like Malinowski, was convinced that“language could only be interpreted within a culture”. However, he wentfurther, suggesting that “no two languages are ever sufficiently similar to beconsidered as representing the same reality. The different worlds in whichdifferent societies live are distinct worlds, not merely the same world withdifferent labels”. That implies that many words and sentences couldn’t besimply translated into another language to express the particular fact ormeaning. Consequently, possibly there are misunderstandings of a language. Forinstance, Chinese are likely to be misunderstood by westerners since Chineselanguage is quite different from English. For one thing, Chinese is acomplicated system, and Chinese has little logical accuracy, just as ShaLianxiang(1989:227) said,“Chinese language, Chinese letters, and the way Chinese people thinking showthat Chinese people think it is not necessary to pay much attention to theaccuracy logical system” (Translated from Chinese).

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Secondly,Saville-Troike’s(1986:47-48)Ethnomethodologist definition of culture most closely concluded thetheory of interrelated logical levels: “culture encompasses all of the sharedrules for appropriate behavior that are learned individual as a consequence ofbeing member of the same values and beliefs that underlie overt behaviors”. And“depending on one's values and beliefs, certain strategies are selectedresulting in a particular behavior in response to the environment” (DavidKatan, 2004:38). For example, “the American will need to believe that a crisp,clear and logical presentation of his views will be the best way to convincethe delegates; the Brazilian will believe that direct expressive action willhelp him achieve his targets”(David Katan, 2004:38). However, modest Chineseprefer to be veiled.  Even thoughwhen they are taking an interview for a job, they would never try to show theirmerits directly.  Just focus on theway people express their ideas or feelings, different strategies are chosen bydifferent groups of people from different culture background. Generally speaking,this is due to the different logical thinking modes between different culturegroups.

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3. Chinese and English LogicalThinking

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3.1 The Original Causes of Logical Thinking Differences BetweenChinese and English

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   As David Katan(2004:38) notedthat, “depending on one's values and beliefs, certain strategies are selectedresulting in a particular behavior in response to the environment”. In additionit is quite reasonable that people’s values must be greatly affected theenvironment in which they live. And, to some extent, people’s logical thinkingis governed by their values, or their attitudes toward the nature. Therefore, originalcauses of differences between Chinese logical thinking and English logicalthinking could trace back to ancient time when the living conditions weredifferent from each other.

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Ancient Chinese lived inbeneficial places which enable them to live a stable life by growing crops andraising livestock. Neither did they need to expand their territory, nor didthey have to attack others. Of cause, no one can deny that there were many warsin China’shistory, among which some battles might be raised for the expanding of onecounty’s territory. However, most of the times, wars of the aggressions are representing the will of some officersand centralizations. Most of the people who involved the wars are either forthe loyalty to their boss or driven to the battlefields by the super officers,or forced to fight against their enemies to defend their sovereignty. Ordinarypeople, the majority of Chinese population, suffered all kinds of disasterscaused by the wars in the war times. They hate wars and even their fellowgenerations are living in the shadow of tragic wars.Everybody wants to live in a peaceful country and have a happy family. Eventhough many wars were supported directly or indirectly by the government force,it doesn’t imply that the royal or the ruling classes advocates to launch wars.Governors are also afraidof wars and they would like to avoid wars if possible. For instance, Wang Zhaojun,an odalisque of Han dynasty, married a Hun and helped keeping a friendlyrelation between Han and Hun for a half century. In feudal dynasties, it is quite common that daughters ofthe imperial family often married to rulers of minority nationalities in theborder areas in order to keep a stable relationship with them. Besides, client states would like to pay the superior state agreat deal of money or a great wealth of tributes such as Fergana horses or cloth so that they can gethelp from them when they are in danger. And gradually they cultivateda habit that not think things thoroughly; instead people paid great efforts inself-cultivation. Thus, different factions of philosophy and religious appearedin China.Among which Confucianism, Taoism,and Buddhism are the top three famous and advanced factions. Interms of each faction’s classical achievements, Confucianismhas The Four Books (The GreatLearning, The Doctrine of the Mean, The Confucian Analects, and The Works ofMencius) and The Five Classics (The Book of Songs, The Book of History, TheBook of Changes, The Book of Rites, and The Spring and Autumn Annals), amongwhich The Doctrine of the Mean has great affects on Chinese logical thinking; Taoismhas Lao-Tzu, Zhuang-zi;and Lao-Tzu, also named Tao Te Ching, “is an outstanding philosophy monographsin the world and makes great contributions to the shaping of Chinesecivilization”(Liu Xianjun,1998:266, translated from Chinese); Chinese Buddhismis characterized by its distinctive Buddhist Psychology—Zen,or deep meditation sect ofBuddhism.

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Meanwhile, the greatest factthat troubled them was how to get along well with others. Peace, harmony, ormean had been one of the kernels of their values and strategy to invite interests.Chinese have a multi-levelof ideas in many aspects, and a particular emphasis on mean inThe Doctrine of the Mean. “Considering about outsideand inside, the mean is inside; in terms of implicit and explicit, the mean isimplicit” (Liu Xianjun, 1998: 60, translated from Chinese). People believe that “Thereis millions of blessing when a family lives in harmony”, and “A bad compromiseis better than a good lawsuit”. Therefore, sometimes Chinese may neglectto analyze the facts for the sake of harmony andpeace when communicating with others.

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In contrast, westerners couldn'tsurvive within the limited soil, people had to hunt or fish for food. But suchkinds of food were difficult to be got and couldn't meet the needs ofsurviving. For this reason, they had to expand outward as well as be morescientific on making living. Thus, they cultivated an extroversive character in their values.And logical thinking, which is affected by values, and also is essential toscience, was well developed among westerners. There are representative examplessuch as Aristotle's strict Formal logic, and Rationalism in 16th-18thcentury. They pay great attention to the tightness of scientific trails andinvestigations, and comprehensive analysis to the aspects of language. Thus, itseems that English is more precise than Chinese in meaning and logic. Inaddition, western societies, especially Britainand America,have advanced governments which offering many helps such as welfares for theirpeople. Differently, Chinese people will go to friends and relatives for helpswhen in trouble, but people in western societies can get help from the government.As a result, their values tended to be individualism. They try to realize thevalues of their own. And in communication, they also try to achieve their goalsrather than to maintain a long-term friendship with others. Consequently, theircommunicating logic is quite direct and simple. 

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3.2  Characteristics of Chinese Logical Thinking

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From time-honored history, Chinahas been famous for her out-standing brilliant civilization throughout theworld. Among the colossal culture, the ethical system serves as one of thenorms in people's life and behaviors and help to achieve harmony incommunications. For example, Tao ideologists advocate “to be natural, no humaninterference; to be modest, gentle, and quiet; to be delicate, effeminate, anddon't compete or strive; to be humble and unassuming” (Net2, translated from Chinese).From the viewpoints of Lao-Tzu, “he who shows himself off isn't really bright; he who regardshimself as infallible won't be conspicuous; he who praises himself has nomerit; he who conceited won't be long-term in power” (Net3, translated from Chinese).He criticizes blowing one's own trumpet, but suggests preserving oneself. Onlyhe who does not intend to wrangle can “merge with the brilliant, and become onewith the dust”. There is a simple old saying, which has the similar meaning,that “haughtiness invites disaster, humility receives benefit” has beenimparted on from generation to generation among Chinese for centuries. Indetail, the characteristics are discussed as followings.

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Firstly, in Chinese traditions,people view modesty and humble as good manners. For instance, in receptions, regardlessof whether or not the dishes are sumptuous or delicious, Chinese hostess areaccustomed to say “we have nothing palatable, help yourself please; I’m reallysorry for cooking nothing tasty, just do with it” to her guests. And in all kinds of conferences andlectures, those who speak first in China show a preference to the phrase “casta brick to attach jade” which means to offer a few somewhat immature remarks tosolicit others wise and mature opinions. What’s more, many Chinese speakerswould like to say that what they are going to say is just in his humble viewwhich means of little consultable or important. In fact, they are really as badas they say about themselves. It is just a habit of showing humble in public.

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Secondly, Chinese people don’t like showingthemselves off. Students don’t like asking and answering questions in theclass. When taking a job interview, interviewees would like to say they arehonest, modest, responsible, steady and not frivolous. Whether talkingabout merits or shortcomings, they would seek for an indirect expression.

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Thirdly, “belittle oneself toesteeming others is the core of Chinese politeness” (Gu Yueguo: 30-32, translatedfrom Chinese). In thethousands years of feudal society, people are classified into different classesaccording to their social and political status. The lower classes have to servethe upper classes, and people in the same classes should belittle themselvesbefore each other to show friendless and well cultivated. Nowadays, even thoughthere aren’t any classifications in social status, in some cases, people stilltry to belittle themselves in order to behave as civil. For example, B belittled himself in the following conversation.

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A: 非常感谢你帮我的忙！     = Thankyou very much for helping me!

B: 这是我该做的。          = It is my duty to help you.

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   Fourthly, Chinesepeople are accustomed to neglect and deny others compliments when be praised. Theywould rather to demonstrate that they are modest than be seen as arrogant evenif what they say is running counter to the facts. Look at the followingexamples which happen frequently in daily life.

⑴ A: 你的英语口语真好！      = Your oral English is great!

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B: 一般般了。             = It’s ok!

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⑵ A: 你的字写得真好！        =How beautiful your handwriting is!

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B: 你没看见他的！         = You don’t know!

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他写的才好呢！            He writes more beautiful.

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⑶ A: 你真聪明！               = You are so clever!

   B: 哪里！我笨得要死了！     = Not at all. I can't be dull any more!

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In conversations one, B wakened A’s complimentsin a little bit. In conversations two, B weakened the power of the compliments bydiverting the topic to another people. In conversations three, B denies thecompliments directly and go on emphasizing how dullhe is.

Fifthly, sometimes Chinese people arenot honest in communications. Again, in the same example given before, when thehostess says sorry, there might be sumptuous and delicious served on the table.Every Chinese knows the reason why she tells lies is to show her guests herwarm welcome to her home and she is doing her best to serve her guests. Anotheraspect is that in China,people have the habit to add rice and dish to their guests.

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Host: 来我给你添点饭。          = Would you like to have more rice?

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Guest: 不！不要了！我吃饱了。    = No, thanks! I’m full.

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The guest tells lies and refused the host first because heknows that the host won’t stop immediately, and then he will accept the host’sservice when the host insists on serving him. Onthe one hand, this reveals the manners of the guest; on the other hand, thisoffers the host achance to show his warm welcome to his guests.

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 Last but not least, being governed by the ethics of Chinesetraditional ideology and characterized by pictographs, Chinese and Chinesecharacters are full of images and hidden explanations. The acme of meaning lieson “what you say may not what you mean, but try to make what you say containthe actual meaning you want to express” (Liang Yiru, Hu Xiaohui, 2003:75, Translatedfrom Chinese). Chinese have different ways to greet people. And different greetingsare used to greet different people in different situations.

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⑴ 你好！                     = Hello!

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⑵ 你最近身体好吗？           = How are you doing?

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⑶ 你吃饭了没？               = Did you have lunch /supper?

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Sample one is often used in formal situations and in thecases that two persons meet for the first time. Speakers may not familiar witheach other very much. Sample two is often used by younger generations to greetelder generations. Usually, speakers of relatives mayalso use it to greet each other and they are not limited by generations or theirages. Sample three is often used between accountancies and only when it’sabout lunch time or meal time. In addition, sometimes the answer has nothing to do withwhat they are going to do or talk about. Greetings are just greetings. But greetings help making the speakers onestep closer and preventing to make others like a stranger by simply sayinghello.

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In brief, Chinese are frequently to be modest and implicit sothat sometimes the listener shouldn't simply take it granted that what thespeaker said is what he intended to convey by direct logic reasoning. As a result,neither should the listener interpret the speaker’s discourse according toliterary meaning, nor should he comprehend the speaker by logic reasoning.  Otherwise he would fail to get the realintention of the speaker and also fail to communicate with the speaker at last.

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3.3  Characteristics of English Logical Thinking

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Firstly, as is mentioned above, dueto history factors aspects, westerns have an extroversive character in the values. This is shown in their individuation. They agree to be different, and they like to be different. Studentsare encouraged to ask questions and show their ideas to other. Everything inconstantly changing and only creative ideas can make some differences. Anyonewho had great achievements always has different and creative ideas.

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 Secondly, individualism also causessomething equal. That is, everyone is equal in communications. Regardless ofsocial status, ages, and sexes, people can call each other by their names; usethe same discourse to greet each other; one have to respect other people’sprivacy such as age, marriage, and salary.

Thirdly, people used to cooperatewith each other when they are talking. They obey Grice’s Cooperative Principles(Grice, Logic and Conversation: 1975). They are “⑴Maximof Quality- Do not saysomething if you lack adequate evidence; do not say what you believe tobe false. ⑵Maxim of Quantity–Makesyour contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of exchange.Do not make your contribution more informative than required). ⑶Maxim of Relation–Berelative. ⑷Maxim of Manner–Avoidambiguity; be brief; be orderly” (Net4).

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They are habitually to say “Thankyou!” when praised by other. As noted by Kramsch(1993:8), “compliments inAmerican obliges a reply”. The example he gives is:

A: I love your accent!

B: Oh! Thank you!

While, the author found an oppositeexample which happens frequently in English corner in China:

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A—American teacher       C—Chinesestudents

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A: Your English is pretty good.

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B: No! My English is poor.

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To American eyes, to be too modest ortalk in circles, like the way Chinese do, would be seen as hypocritical.

Fourthly, Americans treat honestyseriously. And people are talking about reality, expressing their true feelingsand needs. When there is a visitor at home, the host may ask whether the guestwants something to drink:

Host: Would you like something todrink, tea or coffee?

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Guest: Yes, tea please! /No, thanks!

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The gust’s answer is very clear and specific.And the host won’t ask his guest to drink the same kind of drink again once theguest refused him.

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At last, in western culture, as Dressler (1992:14) notes,“indirectness does not always increase politeness”. Even though there are manyways to greet people, they are all direct greetings. Not as Chinese greetingswhich take many aspects into consideration and may lead to misunderstandings.

A: 你吃饭了没？            = Did you have lunch /supper?

B: 刚刚吃完/还没呢。         = Yes, I did. /Not yet.

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In the same example mentioned above,from the view point of Chinese people, for the discourse “Did you havelunch/supper?”, it contains two meanings: a. it’s a simple way of greetingpeople，and they may not at home; b. if they are at A’s home, andit’s time for meal, A might serve B a meal in the case of B didn’t have meal.While, in the view point of English speakers, they would think that A is goingto give B a treat.

Generally speaking, characterized asindividualism, westerners attach great importance to the realization of one'svalue of life. Their discourses concentrated on facts directly related toreality. Their logic is quite clear and strict.

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4. Conclusion

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To sum up, due to history and culturedifferences, there are great disparities between Chinese and English logicalthinking.

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Firstly, Chinese seek for harmony andpeace in the relationship between each other, and they behave as humble,modest, implicit, and sometimes may be dishonest in communications.  Their logic is complicated and excursive.

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Secondly, westerners are dominated byindividualism and they tend to be more self conscious,flaunt, and publicized than Chinese. They advocate personal achievements andfreedom in life. He who isn’t good at performing himself would be seen as notperfect. Therefore, they adhere tostraightforwardness, or directness in communication. Compared to Chinese, theirlogic is simpler and tighter.

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Since there are disparities betweenChinese and English logic, participants of cross-culture communication shouldpay attention to the other side’s logical thinking habit. To be straightforwardor to be veiled depends on where you are and whom you are talking with. Knowingthe others local thinking, and “when in Rome,do as the Romans do” may contribute a successful communication.

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As asenior college student of English major, the author is interested logic andcross-culture communication, thus this paper attempts to find more fruits onlogical differences in cross-culture communication. Yet, considering theauthor's limited experience, and the limited research environment, the scope ofthis paper is restricted to the general characteristics of Chinese and Englishlogical thinking. And, it is unavoidable that there are some aspects need to beimproved in the future research.

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DavidKatan (2004) Translating Culture: An introduction for translators,interpreters and mediators, Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

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Dressler,Wolfgang U. (1992) ‘Marked and Unmarked Text Strategies within SemanticallyBased       NATURALText linguistics’, Language in Context: Essays for Robert E. Longancre,Shin Ja J. Hanwang and R. Merrifiled(eds), Arlington: The Summer Institute ofLinguistics and The University of Texas at Arlington.

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Kramsch, Claire (1993)Context and Culture in Language Teaching, Oxford:Oxford University Press.

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OxfordAdvanced Leaner's English-Chinese Dictionary, fourth edition, 1997:873.

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OxfordAdvanced Leaner's English-Chinese Dictionary, sixth edition, 1997:1029.

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Sapir,Edward (1929) ‘The Status of Linguistic as a Science’, Language 5:214.

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Saville-Troike,Muriel (1986:47-48) the Ethnography of Communication: an Introduction, Oxford: Blackwell.

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顾曰国，1992，礼貌、语用与文化【J】，外语教学与研究。

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梁一儒，户晓辉，宫承波，2002，《中国人审美心理研究》，山东人民大学出版社。

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刘献君、罗映光、桑敬民，1998，《中国传统道德》，华中理工大学出版社。

莎莲香，1989，《中国民族性》(一)，中国人民大学出版社。

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苏珊·朗格著、刘大基等译，1986，《情感与形式》，中国社会科学出版社。

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现代汉语词典（电子词典）

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Net1: http://baike.baidu.com/view/1017237.html

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Net2: http://wenku.baidu.com/view/0fa591717fd5360cba1adb01.html

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Net3:http://wenku.baidu.com/view/c60ab86648d7c1c708a1456b.html

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Net4: http://baike.baidu.com/view/941532.htm

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